On September 11, 2001, terrorist activities killed nearly 3,000 people and wounded a nation. Nearly 400 of the dead were first responders trying to rescue those in need. Ceremonies will honor their memories in New York, Washington, and Pennsylvania, where they lost their lives.

In addition, we must honor the men and women who died serving our country in response to such acts. According to the Military Times Project Valor, over 6,800 service members have died in Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Operation New Dawn.

There will be tributes given, names read, photos displayed, wreaths presented, memories relived, and tears shared. There will also be moments of silence. What do you think of during the silence? Who do you remember?

If you are too young to remember the events of that day, "eight personal stories of transformation" are available online at the 9/11 Tribute Center website (a project of the September 11th Families' Association).

As we remember the losses, we are faced with new terrorist threats. Perhaps we must also observe a moment of silence to consider how to best confront new threats of terrorism.

• How do we protect our country and our people without losing our identity as a free nation?
• How do we fight violence without becoming unrestrained aggressors?
• How do we root out enemies without filling with hatred?
  

Wishing you peace.


Articles on memorials:

Alcindor, Yamiche and John Bacon, "Lower Manhattan, the world mark 9/11 anniversary," USAToday.com, Sept. 11, 2014.

Berman, Mark, "Remembrances in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania on anniversary of 9/11 attacks," WashingtonPost.com, Sept. 11, 2014.

Blindner, rachelle and Jonathan Lemire (AP), "Nation remembers the fallen on anniversary of Sept. 11 Attack," LawOfficer.com, Sept. 11, 2014.

DEA4912 on YouTube, "Homeward Angels: A 9/11 Tribute," (Before & After, Responding & Collapse, Memorial), Mar. 25, 2013.

Voices of September 11th, VOICES 9/11 Memorial, accessed Sept. 11, 2014.

Now that the media and the public travel everywhere with cameras, it may be time for law enforcement officers and other first responders to have that same capability. Video from cruiser cameras has been used as evidence in traffic court cases and in use of force incidents. However, dash cams can only capture whatever happens in front of the vehicle. In contrast, body cameras go everywhere an officer goes.

They are "designed to be the eyes and ears during police encounters," www.CBSNews.com. Deputies in Orange County California will run a trial with a few body cameras provided free by the manufacturer. "Unlike a dash camera, the body cameras will capture everything that happens once a deputy gets out of his or her vehicle and approaches a suspect or victim with full video and sound," www.WFTV.com

TYPES OF BODY CAMS

• Shirts or lapels
• Eyeglasses
• Helmets

Sometimes called Point-of-View cameras, these high tech devices give the officer's perspective during use of force incidents and record statements made during drug, DUI, or domestic violence cases. Both advantages and concerns have been expressed over the use of body cams in law enforcement.

CONCERNS/WATCHING THE COPS

"A federal judge ordered New York city's police department to begin testing the devices after ruling that its stop, question, and frisk policy was unconstitutional," www.PoliceOne.com. Mayor Bloomberg argued that the body cams are not the answer. He asserted that it would provide fodder to further question police actions and motives. He thought that an officer who failed to record something might be accused of intentionally looking a different direction to avoid proof of the incident.

A helmet camera recorded the response to a plane crash in which a fire rig ran over a survivor at San Francisco International Airport on July 6, 2013, www.SFGate.com. Afterwards, the San Francisco fire chief banned firefighters from using personal cameras until a policy on their use is resolved. Chief Joanne Hayes-White stated that a concern for the privacy rights of firefighters and victims drove the decision. Cameras have also been banned in Houston and Baltimore, www.SFGate.com.


SUPPORT/DOCUMENTING THE INCIDENT

While some departments have concerns about officers being forced to wear body cams, others see it as a way to verify the claims of good officers doing good work. Chief James Brooks of the Laurel, Maryland, Police Department had a video of a traffic stop at his department go viral. Brooks said, "It shows that these guys were actually doing exactly what they were trained and how they were trained to do it...It was flawless," CNN.com.

Some cameras have a feature in which they capture 10 to 30 seconds of video that took place prior to an officer hitting record. This helps to document the unexpected. Officers can play the video when writing reports to accurately log statements and actions. "I think the biggest benefit is to be able to record a crime scene and the people and exactly how they're telling you the information," said Lt. Bob Wood of the Bellevue, Nebraska, Police Department, www.KETV.com.

Departments can also use videotaped incidents for training. Some of what is preserved will not be flattering. "The camera doesn't lie - it just shows what happened," said Arin Pace, a lieutenant with the Jacksonville, Florida, Fire Department, www.SFGate.com.

MOTORCYCLE OFFICERS

In Salt Lake City, Police Chief Chris Burbank praises the evidentiary value of helmet-mounted cameras for his motorcycle officers. A speeder may claim that obstructions affected the radar or that the officer was threatening until a video of the violation and interaction is shown in court. "Well, you see very clearly that that car is the only vehicle on the overpass. You now have the radar gun and the digital readout on the radar gun visible in the camera, the car in the background, and you've got a pretty good accounting of what that officer did," www.DeseretNews.com.

Chief Jack Baldwin of the Pigeon Forge Police Department in Tennessee also wants personal cameras for his motorcycle officers. "If you're wearing the camera, you've got your audio and video no matter where you are," www.TheMountainPress.com.

DRUG RAIDS

After a series of questionable drug raids, the San Francisco Police Department began equipping plain clothes supervisors with $1,000 chest cams. The allegations of officer misconduct stemmed from security video footage. "We can have a recording of the conversation at the door with regard to consent on consensual entries or the announcement on search warrant entries," Police Chief Greg Suhr said. "The main goal is to capture for purpose of evidence preservation the conversation at the threshold," www.PoliceOne.com.

USE OF FORCE

Chief Burbank of Salt Lake City also argues that video can be crucial in use of force cases. "You see the proximity of what's going on. You see the interplay that takes place and really what the officer's processing," www.DeseretNews.com. It can also be useful in domestic violence cases. The cameras can capture statements and allow officers to accurately transcribe them into reports.

It may be that officers conscious of wearing a camera are more disciplined in their use of language and use of force. The San Francisco Chronicle reported that when police wore personal video cameras in Rialto, California, it "led to an 88 percent drop in complaints against officers and a 60 percent drop in the use of force in a one-year period," www.DeseretNews.com.

CONCLUSION

More than 400 police departments across the U.S. use high tech body cams. Whether worn on a lapel, eyeglasses, or a helmet, body cameras go wherever law enforcement officers go. Those in favor of body cams claim they will protect citizens and law enforcement officers. Others fear they are another means of monitoring officers and raising liability concerns for agencies.

"I think you are going to find out that once this equipment is out there that our officers are performing in a professional manner and have been all along," said Martin Halloran, President of the San Francisco Police Officers Association, www.DeseretNews.com. Like their predecessors, the dash cams, body cams are likely to grow in popularity across the country.


RESOURCES:

• Burns, Kenneth, "Pigeon forge police getting new body cameras to wear on shirts/lapels," www.TheMountainPress.com, Feb. 18, 2013.
• CNN video, "Cops Use Eye Cams to Capture Crime," www.CNN.com, August 22,2013.
• Eversley, Melanie and John Bacon, "Judge Rips NYPD Stop-Frisk Policy; City Will Appeal," www.USAToday.com, Aug 12, 2013.
• KETV article, "Bellevue Police Get Another Set of Eyes," www.KETV.com, August 2, 2013.
  
• Miller, John, "Cop Cams: 400 Police Depts. Use Tiny Devices," www.CBSNews.com, Aug 30, 2013
• Reavy, Pat, "Eye on crime: Police Chief Pushes for Body Cams on Officers," www.DeseretNews.com, Deseret News, Nov. 14, 2012.
• Van Derbeken, Jaxon, "Plainclothes SF Cops Fight Misconduct Allegations with Body Cameras," www.Policeone.com, August 28, 2013.
• Van Derbeken, Jaxon, "SF Fire Chief Bans Helmet Cameras in Wake of Crash," www.SFGate.com, August 19, 2013.
  
• WFTV, "Orange County Deputies Test Out Body Cameras," www.WFTV.com, Sept. 2, 2013.

[Updated 07/24/2013] Over the weekend of July 12 and 13, 2013, jurors in the George Zimmerman trial deliberated for more than 16 hours before delivering a not guilty verdict (Washingtonpost.com). They had considered evidence and weighed whether or not Zimmerman had committed second degree murder or manslaughter, while Zimmerman insisted that he killed Trayvon Martin in self-defense.

Halfway through their deliberations, the jury asked the judge, "May we please have clarification on the instructions regarding manslaughter?" (CBSnews.com). The judge consulted with counsel from both sides and responded that the court could not answer general questions but invited the jury to submit a more specific question. They never did.

I don't know what confusion existed in that Florida jury room, but let's look at what constitutes manslaughter.

While statutes and wording on homicides vary by state, the main difference between first degree murder and other acts that result in a person's death is premeditation. Second degree murder lacks premeditation and intent. It is caused by extreme recklessness. Manslaughter is "the unlawful killing of another person without premeditation or so-called 'malice aforethought' (an evil intent prior to the killing)" (Dictionary.law.com). Manslaughter is generally divided into voluntary and involuntary.

                                                                            Homicides

• First degree murder: intentional and premeditated
• Second degree murder: non-premeditated, caused by extreme recklessness or during a fight
  
• Voluntary manslaughter: intentional, non-premeditated killing which occurs during the "heat of passion"
• Involuntary manslaughter: no intent to kill; death caused by negligence or with intent to behave in a reckless, violent manner which causes death

VOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER
"Voluntary manslaughter includes killing in [the] heat of passion or while committing a felony" (Dictionary.law.com). It is the intentional but unplanned killing of another. It is when someone kills when provoked by current circumstances.

For example, the person who returns home to find his/her spouse in bed with a lover might respond right away with deadly violence. That would generally be considered voluntary manslaughter...intentional but not premeditated, in the heat of an emotionally-charged moment (NOLO.com). If that same person who witnessed the affair waits a week before ambushing and killing either party involved, the scorned killer would most likely be charged with first degree, premeditated murder.

INVOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER
"Involuntary manslaughter occurs when a death is caused by a violation of a non-felony" (Dictionary.law.com). It is caused by recklessness or criminal negligence. It differs from second degree murder by having a lesser degree of recklessness. (See a YouTube example of the difference from Law Bound Prep - Labs at this link).

If two people were in an argument that escalated until one pushed the other who stumbled and then fell down a flight of stairs to his death, the unintentional recklessness might be considered involuntary manslaughter (NOLO.com). Randomly shooting a weapon into the air that results in someone's death would most likely be classified as involuntary manslaughter.

VEHICULAR MANSLAUGHTER
Killing a person with a car is often in its own class of involuntary manslaughter. "In response to the increasing number of homicides caused by drunk drivers, some states have created a distinct offense for deaths caused by drunk driving. These are commonly referred to as, inter alia, 'vehicular manslaughter', 'manslaughter with a vehicle,' 'negligent homicide manslaughter,' or 'DUI manslaughter' (Alanformanlaw.com). The possible prison time for someone found guilty of vehicular manslaughter ranges from 8 to 30 years in Tennessee up to life imprisonment in Washington state.

THE ZIMMERMAN TRIAL
"[This was] a case that many legal analysts said was doomed by Florida prosecutors' decision to pursue a hard-to-prove second-degree murder conviction against Zimmerman," LAtimes.com. Near the end of the trial prosecutors encouraged jurors to consider the lesser offence of involuntary manslaughter, but the case had not been developed in that direction.

Did Zimmerman commit a crime when he shot and killed Trayvon Martin? The jury in this trial said no. I can't help but wonder whether or not further direction on the definition of manslaughter would have affected the jury's decision.

"The frustration that many Americans have felt over the verdict was reflected in 'Justice For Trayvon' rallies that were held in numerous cities over the weekend," (NPR.org). This case and this verdict will continue to raise questions about state laws, judicial procedures, and justice.

Resources:

• Berman, Sara J., "Murder vs. Manslaughter," www.NOLO.com, (accessed July 13, 2013).
• Cobb, Branden, "George Zimmerman Trial: Jurors Ask for Clarification About Manslaughter Charge," www.CBSnews.com, July 13, 2013.
• Forman, Alan S. "Penalties for DUI Manslaughter," www.Alanformanlaw.com, (accessed July 14, 2013).
• Law Bound Prep - Labs, "Involuntary Manslaughter vs 2nd Degree Murder," YouTube.com, November 8, 2011.
  
• Law.com, "Manslaughter," www.Dictionary.law.com, (accessed July 13, 2013).
• Levinson, Alana, "Polls Show Wide Racial Gap on Trayvon Martin Case," NPR.org, July 22, 2013
  
• Roig-Franzia, Manuel, "Zimmerman Found Not Guilty in Killing of Trayvon Martin," www.Washingtonpost.com, July 13, 2013.
• Savage, David G. and Michael Muskal, "Zimmerman Verdict: Legal Experts Say Prosecutors Overreached," LAtimes.com, July 14, 2013
  

This has been a week of emergencies which have attracted national attention. No doubt 911 operators/dispatchers were busy dealing with a torrent of phone calls and radio transmissions after the Boston Marathon bombings and the West, Texas, fertilizer plant explosion, (follow the links to listen to samples). Telecommunications professionals play a key role in every reported emergency.

Not only was April 14-20, 2013, a traumatic week, it was National Public Safety Telecommunications Week. We should say thank you to the people who are there to take our calls when we need help.

Originally, switchboard operators handled emergency calls. Then callers dialed numbers directly...a different number for each police, fire, EMS agency. In 1937, the 999 emergency phone system began in the United Kingdom. "In the United States, the first 911 call was placed in Haleyville (Alabama) on February 16, 1968," (PoliceOne.com).

The 911 system gradually spread to most places in the U.S. While many locations have the enhanced E911, some locations still have no 911 service.

Emergency operators take many calls of every variety. "In a 25-year career in a metropolitan area, the call total can be around a million...Many are mundane, many are a glimpse into hell," (Policeone.com).

Keep in mind that the operator/dispatcher has no visual on the scene. He/she must imagine what is happening, try to calm frantic callers and officers, wait patiently during the silences, and sometimes dive into the next call without knowing how the last was resolved. They hear fear and chaos on the other end of the phone or radio but can't physically do anything to end the emergency.

"Being a 9-1-1 operator/dispatcher is overwhelming. There are half a dozen screens, immense amounts of information, beeps and chirps and whatnot in our ears that all mean different things, codes to remember, directions and locations, names, call-signs, jurisdictional lines, policies and procedures, etc., etc., etc," (Officer.com, 1-9-2013).

Listen to a series of recorded calls and radio transmissions of a shooting in progress that occurred in Glendale, California (Select "Glendale Shootout Part 1" and "...Part 2"). Multiple reports of a man shooting a weapon from inside his apartment flood the call center. First, callers report hearing about 20 shots followed by more and more. Then a series of radio transmissions with officers describes a shootout with the gunman.

Public safety operators are the cruicial first step to any emergency response, yet they are often unappreciated by the public and the officers they dispatch.

According to Jeff Troyer, Executive Director, Calhoun County 911 Consolidated Dispatch Center (Michigan), "Less than 1 percent of the population can actually do this job," he said. "It's not an easy thing to be able to do. It's an environment where multi-tasking is needed, and a position that takes multi-tasking to a whole other level," (Advisor-Chronicle.com).

In what may have been the fist study looking at PTSD among 911 dispatchers/operators, 300 dispatchers were questioned about their worst calls and the effects of stress (Chicagotribune.com). Their most difficult calls are listed below:

                                    WORST CALLS

1. 16.4%    Unexpected death/injury of a child
2. 12.9%    Suicidal callers
3.   9.9%    Officer involved shooting/unexpected death of an adult

Although dispatchers only visualize the scenes described to them by others, they face many of the same emotional distresses that officers experience on scene. "Study respondents experienced 'one or two symptoms' of PTSD while as many as 3.5 percent had symptoms serious enough to qualify for a full PTSD diagnosis," (Chicagotribune.com).

Regardless, the call taker must remain composed. He or she must use techniques to try to calm the person on the other end of the line. Operators and dispatchers jump from one unique call to another.

"We get calls from parking complaints and barking dogs and then you have the extremes — suicides, shootings, homicides — everything you hear on the news," said Jim Jones, training coordinator for Tri-Com Central Dispatch in Kane County, Illinois, (Chicagotribune.com).

Call takers may want to reach through the phone to comfort a terrified child or help barricade the door for a trapped victim. But they can only fight crimes and crises with words.

"[They] suffer from the hypervigilance, that physiological fight, flight or freeze, without the ability to do anything about the circumstances at all. To me, this creates the most amount of stress of the occupation...9-1-1 operators/dispatchers are unsung heroes " (Officer.com, 1-10-2012).

Like other emergency personnel, their shift may go from bordeom to chaos in a moment. We cannot dismiss the importance of their role in public safety.

For those who ask the questions and dispatch the helpers when we call 911--Thank you!


Resources:

• Boston EMS, "Listen: 911 Call for Aid of Boston Marathon Bombings," CBSnews.com, 4-15-2013.
• Investigation Discovery, "Call 911 Videos: Glendale Shootout Part 1" and "Part 2," Discovery.com, (accessed 4-18-2013).
• Kellogg, Corinne, "A Day in the Life of a 911 Dispatcher," Advisor-Chronicle.com, 2-24-2013.
• KMOV.com, "911 Calls Released in West, Texas Explosion," KMOV.com, 4-20-2013.
• McCarthy, Jack, "Feeling the Stress of the Job," Chicagotribune.com, 6-6-2012.
• Perin, Michelle, "911 Call Takers are Behind-the-Scenes Heroes," Policeone.com, 4-16-2013.
• Perin, Michelle, "Just a Dispatcher?" Officer.com, 1-10-2012.
• Perin, Michelle, "Training a Dispatcher," Officer.com, 1-9-2013.

Beginning in 1972, women found more opportunities in law enforcement, although they still faced many barriers. Progress continues to move slowly.

Equipment
In the early 70's, many women were still issued impractical uniforms that included skirts and heals. In wasn't until the late 70's that equipment belts designed for women were available.

There are still issues with uniforms, especially in departments with few women. According to Donna Milgram, executive director of the Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Science (IWITTS), "Most gear is designed for male officers and is based on tests with male officers, and cut down versions don't really work for women. Improperly fitting equipment, and uniforms pose a health and safety hazard which could endanger the lives of police officers and of others" (Policeone.com)

Opportunities
President Richard Nixon's 1969 executive order ending the FBI's ban on hiring women as special agents had been a step in the right direction. However, the most significant piece of legislation to usher in the modern era of law enforcement for women came in 1972.

An amendment to the 1964 Civil Rights Act gave the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) power to enforce anti-discrimination laws for state and local government agencies--including police departments. Women began being hired in greater numbers, attending regular police academies, and receiving promotions to supervisory positions across the country. These advances were not showing up equally in every department.

"An analysis of the UCR data showed that most of the police agencies reporting to the FBI did not employ any policewomen in 2003," (Policechiefmagazine.org). While large agencies and campus police departments integrated women into patrol positions, many small, rural departments still do not have female officers.

Hiring officials say they hire the best person for the job, but complain that there are few female applicants (Pennlive.com). Recruitment still lags behind need.

Diversity is important in law enforcement. Chief James Adams of Upper Allen Twp. Police Department in Pennsylvania said, "If you look at our client base, we have significant victims, witnesses, people we arrest, who are female. I'm not saying it's 50-50, but right now we're 100 percent male as far as sworn staff" (Pennlive.com).

• 1972: An amendment to the 1964 Civil Rights Act gave the EEOC power to enforce anti-discrimination laws for state and local government agencies.
• 1980: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) formally defined sexual harassment and classified it as a form of sexual discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
  
• 1985: Penny Harrington became first female police chief for a major city, (Portland, Oregon).
  
• 1992: Jacquelyn Barrett elected as first black female sheriff (Fulton County, Georgia).
• 1993: Margaret M. Moore, first female to serve as the head of an ATF field office (Baltimore, MD).
  
• 1994: Beverly J. Harvard selected first African American woman to serve as chief of police for a large city, (Atlanta, Georgia).
• 1995: The National Center for Women & Policing and the National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives were founded.
• 1999: Women in Federal Law Enforcement organization was incorporated.
• 2003: The majority of U.S. agencies did not employ female law enforcement officers.
• 2011: Women comprise 13% of law enforcement personnel.
  
• 2013: Julia Pierson appointed by President Obama as first female Secret Service Director.
  

Social Barriers
"In 1973, a sergeant with the LAPD, Fanchon Blake, sued after she and other female police sergeants were not allowed to take the lieutenant's exam because they were women. She won. A similar lawsuit filed against the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department by Sue Bouan in 1980 was eventually settled in 1988" (Policemag.com). These lawsuits helped improve hiring and promotional practices for women. However, some of the pioneers, like Bouman, confronted a backlash from peers for the rest of their careers.

Sexual harassment and hazing were common roadblocks for new female officers in the 1970's. Patty Fogerson, ret. detective supervisor III, worked as a police officer with the LAPD from 1969 to 1994. She talked about her early years on the department. "Phrases like sexual harassment and hostile work environment didn't exist back then. I was able to work robbery and detectives, background investigations, and was one of the first female drill instructors in the academy. I just got along and survived in the beginning, then things settled down" (Policemag.com).

As of 1998, there were few mentoring programs designed to support women in law enforcement (Policemag.com). Women in small departments where they may be the only female patrol officer sometimes find support through national organizations.

Benefits of Women in Law Enforcement
Rather than having a tendency to fuel an already violent situation, female officers are more likely to use communication skills to try to calm the situation. Some victims may find talking with female officers less intimidating than reporting to male officers. Chiefs point out that there are situations in which the department may open itself up to liability when only relying on male officers in sensitive situations with female victims and suspects.

While some are concerned about women not being as big and strong as some male officers, others don't see this as a major issue. There are many tools, including tasers and firearms, that simply do not rely on strength. In most situations, all officers would be better off if they relied on tactics and skills rather than strength.

Now that women play a more active role in the military, some female applicants bring military experience and tactical skills to the job.

Achievements
Although uncommon, women have served as police chiefs, sheriffs, and assistant directors of federal agencies. Women have formed supportive organizations including the International Association of Women Police, The National Center for Women & Policing, The National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives, and Women in Federal Law Enforcement.

There are still firsts left for women in law enforcement. In fact, Julia Pierson was just selected by President Obama to be the Secret Service director on March 26, 2013. She will be the first woman to hold that post. After working as a police officer for three years at the Orlando Police Department, she joined the Secret Service. She rose through the ranks over the last 30 years (www.cfnews13.com). Some believe that she is entrusted with changing the male-dominated culture of the agency which allowed for a prostitution scandal in 2012 (Washingtonpost.com).

Progress
The International Association of Chiefs of Police released a report on "The Future of Women in Policing" (Criminaljusticeschoolinfo.com). These were their findings:

• Given the variety of circumstances faced by law enforcement officers, it has been found that women can be just as effective and even more effective in certain scenarios.
  
  
• Women often show a high degree of competency in intellectual and strategic situations and can diffuse potentially dangerous situations with great skill
  
  
• Women still face discrimination, sexual harassment, and peer intimidation in their roles
  
  
• As role models at higher levels of law enforcement increase, the number of women interested increases
  
  
• The media has recently made a shift and portrayed women as competent and effective law enforcement personnel, which is helpful for changing societal assumptions
  
  
• More than two-thirds of current criminal justice students polled are in support of additional women law enforcement officers
  
  
• Women law enforcement officers are especially effective in carrying out the new community model of policing, which is less reactive and more proactive

Women's role in law enforcement has grown significantly in the last 140 years (see Women in Law Enforcement: The Early Years). Yet, women hold only 13% of law enforcement jobs, and only 7% of supervisory positions (Criminaljusticeschoolinfo.com). Many small departments still have no females among their sworn officers. Unlike their male counterparts, female officers frequently feel the need to prove themselves daily. Perseverance has allowed women to make contributions and attain increasingly more powerful roles in law enforcement.


Resources:

Criminal Justice School Info, "Women in Law Enforcement," www.criminaljusticeschoolinfo.com, (accessed 4-2-2013).

Horne, Peter, "Policewomen: Their First Century and the New Era," www.policechiefmagazine.org, September, 2006.

Miller, Barbara, "Female Police Officers are Rare but Sought After for Unique Skills," www.pennLive.com, 12-8-2012.

National Law Enforcement Officer Museum, "Women in Law Enforcement Photo Timeline," www.NLEOMF.org, (accessed 3-20-2013).

News 13, "Orlando's Julia Pierson Named 1st Woman Secret Service Head," www.cfnews13.com, 3-26-2013.

Scoville, Dean, "The First Female Patrol Officers," www.policemag.com, 9-21-2012.

Stone, Rebecca, "Sam Browne and Beyond: A Look at Duty Belts," www.policeone.com, Nov. 2000.

Wilson, Scott, "Obama to Name Julia Pierson as New Secret Service Director," www.washintonpost.com, 3-26-2013.

A hostage or terrorist situation may demand more tools and tactical expertise than first responders bring to the scene. When even the local SWAT team and state crisis negotiators aren't enough, law enforcement may call in the FBI's Hostage Rescue Team (HRT).

The 30-year-old program was developed in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Extreme? No. Not after the world had witnessed terrorists abduct and murder 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 games in Munich, Germany. At the time, only the military had the assets and training to deal with such a situation, but it could not deploy within the U.S.

                                                               HRT Motto: Servare Vitas
                                                                      "To Save Lives"

This civilian counterterrorism team has responded to nearly 800 incidents since 1983. "When needed, the team is prepared to deploy within four hours of notification to anywhere in the U.S. in response to terrorist incidents, hostage situations, and major criminal threats," FBI.gov. On occasion, they assist the military with sensitive situations in other countries.

High-Risk Missions

• Terrorists
• Hostage-takers
• Violent criminals

Recently the HRT joined local law enforcement officers near Midland City, Alabama, to help rescue a 5-year-old boy, in an underground bunker, from his armed captor. They used military surveillance equipment to monitor activity in the 6 ft. by 8 ft. bunker. At the end of the 144-hour standoff, the boy was safe and the abductor was dead, DothanEagle.com.

The HRT had built a mock bunker to train for possible entry. "The FBI Hostage Rescue Team blew the doors off the bunker and shot dead the survivalist during the daring raid...after footage from a secret hi-tech camera showed the boy's life was in imminent danger," DailyMail.co.uk. The press kept many details confidential until the standoff ended. Any publicity could have tipped off the abductor and endangered the boy.

This tremendous success comes on the 30th anniversary of the team's founding. Not all of the team's actions are always praised. In 1993, the HRT was involved in the tragic standoff with the Branched Davidian sect in Waco, Texas. Seventy-four of the cult's members died during the siege, CBSNews.com. To see an overview of how the Hostage Rescue Team is supposed to work, view the FBI's new video, "Hostage Rescue Team Marks 30 Years."


Resources:

Collins, Laura and Thomas Durante and Rachel Quigley, "I Can't Describe How Incredible it is to Hold Him Again," DailyMail.co.uk, 2-5-2013.
FBI, "The Hostage Rescue Team: 30 Years of Service to the Nation," FBI.gov, 2-1-2013.
FBI, "Hostage Rescue Team Marks 30 Years," Youtube.com, 2-1-2013.
Frontline, "Waco: Chronology of the Siege," PBS.org, (accessed 2-25-2013).
Griffin, Lance, "Hostage Safe, Gunman Dead in Midland City Standoff," DothanEagle.com, 2-4-2013.
Miller, John, "Behind the Scenes of FBI's Secretive Hostage Rescue Team," CBS This Morning, CBSNews.com, 2-6-2013.

Most municipalities demand police protection around the clock; therefore, shift work is an integral part of law enforcement. Agencies differ in the length, times, and rotation of shifts required of their officers. Some shift work leaves police in a state of fatigue that ultimately endangers them and the public they protect.

Beyond their scheduled shifts, officers may work overtime on cases, court appearances, or special assignments. "Roughly 40 percent of the nation's 861,000 police officers work more than 12 hours a day -- and a similar proportion suffer from a sleep disorder such as insomnia or excessive sleepiness" (APA.org). Sleep disorders and fatigue affect moods, cognitive abilities, physical reflexes, social interactions, and immune systems. That is bad for performing routine functions like driving and high-level decision making, "especially when officers must make decisions about whether to use deadly force -- often in ambiguous, fast-paced, high-risk situations" (APA.org).

Length of Shift

Traditionally, police were scheduled to work five 8-hour shifts per week. Many departments have experimented with four 10-hour shifts or even three 12-hour shifts.

Karen Amendola and her colleagues at the Police Foundation conducted a study of 275 officers working various lengths of shifts over six months. The officers were randomly assigned to work 8-, 10-, or 12-hour shifts.  It turned out that officers working 10-hour shifts tended to get more sleep than those working 8-hour shifts--an average of 30 minutes more per night (NIJ.gov). Those working 10-hour shifts worked the least amount of overtime and also reported having a "higher quality of work life than those on 8-hour shifts" (NIJ.gov).

In contrast, "officers working the 12-hour shifts reported greater levels of sleepiness and lower levels of alertness at work" (NIJ.gov). They worked 3 times as much overtime as those on 10-hour shifts, but less than those working 8-hour shifts.

From limited data, the 12-hour shift seems to be the least conducive to optimum police effectiveness on the job while 10-hour shifts hold possible benefits over the traditional 8-hour system. More research is needed.

Time of Day

Let's compare working a night shift to a more traditional day/evening shift. We may all have 24 hours in a day, but people who work a night shift tend to get less sleep than those who work other schedules. They get stuck between living a nocturnal existence in which they sleep during the day and participating in social circles that gather during the day. Many function on less than four hours of sleep daily. "This could lead to individual health problems, as well as poor work performance" (Jimston Journal).

Even if they get ample sleep, they still face a difficult battle. "People who work the night shift must combat their bodies' natural rest period while trying to remain alert and high functioning" (APA.org). Your body is designed to slow down and cool off at night--not what you want when responding to an emergency call.

Officers may adopt bad eating and drinking habits in an effort to boost their energy levels, but this leads to other health problems.

Alternative Work Patterns

There are three ways that shift work tends to be assigned: dedicated (permanent) shifts; slow rotation; and rapid rotation (Jimston Journal).

Dedicated Shifts: Set work hours make it easier for departments to schedule officers and for officers to adjust their habits to their work hours. Individuals at least have the opportunity to physically adjust to their schedules. However, night shift workers are still less likely to get a full seven to eight hours of sleep. Problems of sleep loss and fatigue are exacerbated when the assigned shift is a 12 hour, overnight shift.

Slow Rotation: Some departments choose to share the burdens and opportunities of working various shifts across the workforce. They may switch shifts slowly over time. It is best for the health of workers that they not have to "change shifts for at least 4-5 weeks at a time. This allows for minimal disruption of the circadian cycle" (Jimston Journal).

Rapid Rotation: Within as little as one week, police may be required to change from afternoon to day to night shift. This is the most disruptive of all patterns, giving individuals no chance to adjust their biological clocks to a set of wake/sleep hours. Animal experiments have shown that rapid rotation left circadian rhythms undetectable. "Body temperature and blood chemistry of these animals were in a constant state of flux" (Jimston Journal). 

It is imperative that departments use either dedicated shifts or a slow rotation. "Research has found that people deprived of normal sleeping patterns can actually fall into microsleep for a few seconds and be unaware that they aren't performing the task before them" (Jimston Journal).

Even if we go with dedicated, 10-hour shifts, some officers must be assigned to the night shift. Next week, I will look into ways to adjust your biological clock and avoid the sleep and health issues often associated with working the night shift.

Resources:

• Pearsall, Beth, "Sleep Disorders, Work Shifts and Officer Wellness," National Institute of Justice, NIJ.gov, 06/2012.
• Price, Michael, "The Risks of Night Work," American Psychological Association, APA.org, 01/2011.
• Violanti, John M., "Shift Work may be Hazardous to Your Health," Jimston Journal, (accessed 12-26-2012)